Biodiversity and Conservation

Biodiversity

Amazing Diversity of Life

• Earth supports an extraordinary variety of organisms, such as:
  • More than 20,000 species of ants
  • Around 300,000 species of beetles
  • About 28,000 species of fishes
  • Nearly 20,000 species of orchids

• This diversity raises fundamental biological questions:
  • Why are there so many species?
  • Did such diversity always exist?
  • How did it evolve?
  • How important is biodiversity for biosphere stability?
  • How do humans benefit from it?

15.1 Biodiversity – Concept

• Definition
  • Biodiversity (biological diversity) refers to the variety of life forms at different levels of biological organization — from genes to ecosystems — along with their interactions.

Historical Note

• Term first coined by Walter G. Rosen (1985)
• Popularised by Edward O. Wilson

Biodiversity varies regionally depending on environmental conditions and species tolerance limits.

Levels of Biodiversity

Biodiversity exists at three hierarchical levels:

1. Genetic Diversity

• Variation in genes within a species.
• Examples
  • Over 50,000 genetically distinct rice strains in India.
  • Around 1,000 mango varieties in India.
  • Rauwolfia vomitoria shows variation in reserpine content across Himalayan regions.
• Significance
  • Enhances adaptability
  • Increases survival under environmental change

2. Species Diversity

• Variety and richness of species in a given region.
• Key Concepts
  • Species richness → Number of species per unit area
  • Species evenness → Relative abundance of species
• Example
  • Western Ghats have greater amphibian diversity than Eastern Ghats.

3. Ecological Diversity

• Variation at ecosystem and habitat levels.
• Example: India contains diverse ecosystems such as:
  • Deserts
  • Rainforests
  • Mangroves
  • Coral reefs
  • Wetlands
  • Estuaries
  • Alpine meadows
• Components
  • Alpha diversity → Within a habitat
  • Beta diversity → Between habitats
  • Gamma diversity → Across large geographical regions

How Many Species Exist on Earth?

• Recorded Species
  • About 1.5 million species described globally
• Estimated Total
  • Estimates range from 20–50 million
  • Robert May estimated approximately 7 million species

• Taxonomic Distribution
  • >70% of recorded species are animals
  • >70% of animals are insects
  • About 7 out of every 10 animals are insects

• Plants: Plants (including algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms) → ≤22%
• Fungi: Fungi species exceed the combined total of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals

Microbial Diversity

• Exact number unknown due to:
  • Identification difficulty
  • Morphological similarity
• If molecular methods are used, microbial diversity may reach millions.

Biodiversity in India

• Land Area Contribution
  • India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s land area
• Species Contribution
  • Accounts for 8.1% of global biodiversity
• Recorded Species
  • ~45,000 plant species
  • ~90,000 animal species
• Estimated Undiscovered Species
  • >100,000 plant species
  • >300,000 animal species

India is recognised as one of the 12 mega-diverse countries of the world.

Endemic Species

• Species restricted to a specific region.
• Example: Western Ghats are rich in endemic amphibians.

Importance of Biodiversity

• Result of millions of years of evolution
• Provides ecosystem stability
• Supports food webs and nutrient cycles
• Maintains ecological balance

• Current concern:
  • Present extinction rates may erase significant biodiversity within two centuries.

Challenges in Biodiversity Assessment

• Shortage of trained taxonomists
• Time-consuming identification process
• Many species may go extinct before discovery

Summary Points

• Biodiversity exists at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels
• >70% of species are animals; insects dominate
• India: 2.4% land but 8.1% global biodiversity
• Estimated global species ≈ 7 million (Robert May)
• India is a mega-diverse nation
• Conservation is urgent due to rapid species loss

Patterns of Biodiversity

• Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed across the globe.
• It follows certain predictable ecological patterns.

1. Latitudinal Gradients

• General Pattern
  • Species diversity decreases from the equator toward the poles.
  • Tropics (23.5°N to 23.5°S) harbour more species than temperate and polar regions.
• Examples
  • Colombia (near equator) → ~1,400 bird species
  • India (tropical region) → >1,200 bird species
  • New York (41°N) → 105 bird species
  • Greenland (71°N) → 56 bird species

• Amazon Rainforest – Highest Biodiversity on Earth
  • ~40,000 plant species
  • 3,000 fish species
  • 1,300 bird species
  • 427 mammal species
  • 427 amphibian species
  • 378 reptile species
  • >125,000 invertebrates
  • ~2 million insect species yet to be discovered

Why Are Tropics More Diverse?

1. Evolutionary Time
   • Tropical regions remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years (no repeated glaciations).
   • Long evolutionary time allowed extensive speciation.
2. Stable Environment
   • Less seasonal variation
   • Predictable climate
   • Promotes niche specialization
3. Higher Solar Energy
   • Greater sunlight availability
   • Higher primary productivity
   • Supports complex food webs
   • Leads to greater species diversity

Species-Area Relationships

• Observation
  • Proposed by Alexander von Humboldt.
  • Species richness increases with increasing explored area — but only up to a limit.
• Graph Pattern
  • Rectangular hyperbola (normal scale)
  • Straight line on logarithmic scale
• Mathematical Equation
  • log S = log C + Z log A
  • Where:
    • S → Species richness
    • A → Area
    • Z → Slope (regression coefficient)
    • C → Y-intercept
• Value of Z
  • For small areas → 0.1 to 0.2
  • For very large areas (continents) → 0.6 to 1.2
  • Example: Frugivorous birds and mammals in tropical forests → Z ≈ 1.15

Key Concept

• Larger geographical areas show steeper slopes because:
  • Habitat diversity increases
  • Evolutionary processes operate at broader scales
  • Greater environmental heterogeneity supports more species

Quick Revision Points

• Biodiversity highest in tropics, lowest near poles
• Amazon rainforest = global biodiversity hotspot
• Species richness increases with area
• Z value higher for large continental scales
• Latitudinal gradient + species–area relationship explain global diversity patterns

Importance of Species Diversity

Does Species Number Matter?

• Yes. Species diversity strongly influences ecosystem functioning and long-term stability.

Ecosystem Stability

• A Stable Ecosystem Shows
  • Consistent productivity year after year
  • Resistance or resilience to disturbances
  • Resistance to invasion by alien species

David Tilman’s Experimental Findings

• David Tilman demonstrated experimentally that:
  • Higher species diversity → Lower year-to-year variation in biomass
  • More diverse ecosystems → Higher productivity
• Conclusion
  • Greater biodiversity enhances ecosystem stability, resilience, and overall performance.

Rivet Popper Hypothesis

• Proposed By
  • Paul Ehrlich

• Analogy
  • Ecosystem = Airplane
  • Species = Rivets
• If a few rivets are removed → Plane continues to fly.
• If many rivets are removed → Plane becomes unstable.

• Critical Species
  • Loss of keystone species (like rivets on wings) is far more dangerous than loss of less critical species.
• Key Idea
  • Each species contributes to ecosystem integrity.
  • Cumulative loss increases the risk of collapse.

Loss of Biodiversity

• Human activities are the major drivers of biodiversity decline.

Recorded Extinctions

• IUCN Red List (2004)
  • 784 species extinct in last 500 years
    – 338 vertebrates
    – 359 invertebrates
    – 87 plants

• Examples of Recent Extinctions
  • Dodo (Mauritius)
  • Quagga (Africa)
  • Thylacine (Australia)
  • Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia)
  • Three tiger subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian)

• Colonization Impact
  • >2,000 native bird species extinct in Pacific Islands due to human colonization

Current Extinction Scenario

• Threatened Species Worldwide
  • >15,500 species at risk

• Percent Threatened
  • 12% of birds
  • 23% of mammals
  • 32% of amphibians
  • 31% of gymnosperms
• Most vulnerable group → Amphibians

• Current Extinction Rate
  • 100–1000 times faster than pre-human rates

• Prediction
  • Nearly half of existing species may disappear within the next 100 years if current trends continue.

Historical Extinctions

• Five mass extinctions occurred before humans.

• Examples
  • Permian extinction (~225 million years ago) → 90% marine invertebrates vanished
  • K–T boundary extinction (~65 million years ago) → Dinosaurs disappeared
  • Pleistocene extinction → Woolly mammoth and mastodon vanished

• Present Phase
  • Often referred to as the Sixth Mass Extinction — largely anthropogenic.

Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

• Decline in plant productivity
• Reduced resistance to drought and stress
• Greater variability in ecosystem processes
• Increased pest and disease outbreaks

Biodiversity loss weakens ecological networks and threatens long-term human survival.

Causes of Biodiversity Loss (The Evil Quartet)

• The present accelerated extinction rate is largely due to human activities.
• Four major causes are collectively called the Evil Quartet:
  • Habitat loss and fragmentation
  • Over-exploitation
  • Alien species invasion
  • Co-extinctions

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

Main Cause

• Destruction of natural habitats is the primary driver of species extinction.

• Forms of Habitat Destruction
  1. Deforestation
  2. Filling wetlands
  3. Ploughing grasslands
  4. Construction of dams, reservoirs, roads
  5. Urban expansion

• Why Habitat Loss is Dangerous
  • Eliminates shelter and breeding grounds
  • Increases predation risk
  • Destroys endemic species
  • Forces migration to unsuitable habitats

• Tropical Rainforests – A Dramatic Example
  • Earlier coverage → 14% of Earth’s land surface
  • Present coverage → ~6%

• Amazon Rainforest
  • Known as “lungs of the planet”
  • Cleared for soybean cultivation and cattle grazing
  • Harbours millions of species

Fragmentation

• Definition
  • Large continuous habitats are broken into smaller isolated patches.
• Consequences
  • Disruption of ecological interactions
  • Species restricted to deep forest areas are lost
  • Reduced genetic exchange
  • Migratory species lose routes
  • Animals requiring large territories (e.g., mammals, birds) are severely affected
• Even when some habitat remains, fragmentation drastically reduces biodiversity.

2. Over-Exploitation

• Definition
  • Excessive use of biological resources beyond sustainable limits.
• Causes
  • Hunting
  • Poaching
  • Overfishing
  • Commercial harvesting
  • Human greed
• Historical Extinctions
  • Dodo
  • Passenger pigeon
  • Steller’s Sea Cow
  • Three tiger subspecies
• Current Concern
  • Decline of global marine fish populations
  • Many commercially important fish species nearing endangerment

When population size falls below a critical threshold, recovery becomes difficult → extinction risk rises.

3. Alien Species Invasion

• Definition
  • Introduction of non-native species into new ecosystems (intentional or accidental).
• Why Dangerous?
  • Absence of natural predators
  • Rapid reproduction
  • Outcompete native species
  • Disrupt food webs

Major Examples

1. Nile Perch – Lake Victoria
   • Introduced predator fish
   • Caused extinction of >200 native cichlid species
2. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
   • Introduced to reduce pollution
   • Clogged wetlands and rivers
   • Destroyed aquatic ecosystems
3. Other Invasive Species
   • Lantana camara → Replaced native forest plants
   • Parthenium hysterophorus (Carrot grass) → Displaced local herbs
   • African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) → Threatens native Indian catfish

Island ecosystems are particularly vulnerable due to limited species diversity.

4. Co-Extinctions

• Definition
  • Extinction of one species leading to extinction of another species dependent on it.
• Occurs In
  • Obligate mutualism
  • Host–parasite relationships
  • Plant–pollinator interactions
• Examples
  • If host fish becomes extinct → Its parasites also disappear
  • Co-evolved plant–pollinator pairs may vanish together

Extinction rarely occurs in isolation due to ecological interdependence.

Biodiversity Conservation

• Definition
  • Biodiversity conservation means protection, scientific management and sustainable use of biological diversity so that it benefits present and future generations.
• Conservation aims to:
  • Maintain species at optimum levels
  • Prevent extinction
  • Ensure long-term ecological balance
  • Provide sustainable benefits

Why Should We Conserve Biodiversity?

• The reasons are grouped into three major categories:
  • Narrowly utilitarian (direct economic benefits)
  • Broadly utilitarian (ecosystem services)
  • Ethical / intrinsic value

1. Narrowly Utilitarian Argument

Direct Economic Benefits

• Humans derive numerous products from biodiversity:
  • Food: Cereals, Pulses, Fruits
  • Fuel and Materials: Firewood, Fibre, Construction materials
  • Industrial Products: Tannins, Dyes, Lubricants, Resins, Perfumes

Medicinal Importance

• More than 25% of modern drugs are plant-derived
• Around 25,000 plant species are used in traditional medicine systems

Bioprospecting

• Definition
  • Exploration of biodiversity for economically valuable genes, molecules or species.
• Importance
  • Countries rich in biodiversity can gain major economic advantages through research and sustainable use.

2. Broadly Utilitarian Argument

Ecosystem Services

• Biodiversity maintains essential life-support systems.
• Major ecosystem services include:
  • Oxygen Production
    • Tropical forests such as the Amazon contribute significantly to atmospheric oxygen through photosynthesis.
  • Pollination
    • Bees, birds and bats pollinate crops. Artificial pollination would be extremely costly and inefficient.
  • Climate Regulation
    • Forests store carbon and help regulate global climate.
  • Soil Formation and Nutrient Cycling
    • Microorganisms maintain soil fertility and productivity.
  • Water Purification
    • Wetlands naturally filter pollutants.
  • Aesthetic and Recreational Value
    • Walking in forests
    • Watching flowering landscapes
    • Listening to birds
• These improve psychological and emotional well-being.

3. Ethical / Intrinsic Value Argument

• Core Principle
  • Every species has inherent value, irrespective of its economic utility.
• Moral Responsibility
  • Humans share Earth with millions of species
  • We have an ethical duty to protect them
  • Conservation ensures resources for future generations
• This argument emphasizes respect for life and intergenerational responsibility.

How Do We Conserve Biodiversity?

• Two major strategies:
  1. In-situ conservation
  2. Ex-situ conservation

In Situ Conservation (Conservation in natural habitat)

• Definition
  • Protection of entire ecosystems so species survive in their original environment.

Core idea: “Save the whole forest to save the tiger.”

A. Biodiversity Hotspots

• Definition
  • Regions with high species richness and high endemism under severe threat.
  • Identified by Norman Myers.
• Criteria
  • High species diversity
  • High endemism
  • Severe habitat loss
  • High exploitation pressure
• Global Hotspots
  • 34 recognized worldwide
• India’s Hotspots
  • Western Ghats–Sri Lanka
  • Indo-Burma
  • Himalaya

Hotspots cover less than 2% of Earth’s land but support a large share of global biodiversity.

B. Protected Areas

• Definition
  • Legally designated regions for biodiversity protection.
• Types
  1. National Parks
  2. Wildlife Sanctuaries
  3. Biosphere Reserves

1. National Parks

• Strict protection
• No grazing or cultivation
• Managed by government
• Examples: Kaziranga, Bandipur

2. Wildlife Sanctuaries

• Protection mainly of fauna
• Limited human activities permitted
• Grazing and resource use may be allowed

3. Biosphere Reserves

• Initiated under UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme.
• Zonation
  1. Core Zone
     • Completely protected
     • No human interference
  2. Buffer Zone
     • Research and limited resource use allowed
  3. Transition Zone
     • Human settlements and sustainable activities allowed

Sacred Groves – Traditional Conservation

• Community-protected forest patches based on religious beliefs.
• Found in:
  • Khasi and Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya)
  • Aravalli Hills (Rajasthan)
  • Western Ghats (Karnataka, Maharashtra)
  • Sarguja, Chanda, Bastar (Madhya Pradesh)
• Importance:
  • Protect endemic and rare species
  • Preserve genetic diversity

Ex Situ Conservation (Conservation Outside Natural Habitat)

• Definition
  • Ex-situ conservation is the protection of endangered species outside their natural habitats in specially designed settings.
• Purpose
  • Rescue critically endangered species
  • Preserve genetic material
  • Support reintroduction into the wild
  • Provide genetic resources for breeders and scientists

Core idea: When the natural habitat cannot protect a species, the species is protected separately.

Major Methods of Ex-situ Conservation

1. Off-site collections
2. Gene banks
3. Advanced biotechnological methods

I. Off-site Collections

• Definition
  • Live collections of species maintained outside their natural habitats.
• Examples
  • Zoological parks
  • Botanical gardens
  • Wildlife safari parks
  • Arboreta
• Functions
  • Maintain living specimens
  • Conduct captive breeding programmes
  • Create public awareness and education

Captive Breeding

• Enables survival of species extinct in the wild
• Population increased under protection
• Individuals may be selectively released into natural habitats

II. Gene Banks

• Definition
  • Facilities that preserve genetic material of plants and animals for long-term conservation.
• Materials Preserved
  • Viable seeds
  • Live plants
  • Tissue cultures
  • Frozen germplasm
  • Gametes and embryos
• Purpose:
  • Preserve maximum genetic variability for future use.

Seed Banks

• Seeds stored under controlled conditions.

• Orthodox Seeds
  • Tolerate low moisture (~5%)
  • Survive low temperature (-10°C to -20°C)
  • Long-term storage possible
• Examples: cereals, legumes

• Recalcitrant Seeds
  • Cannot tolerate drying
  • Cannot tolerate low temperature
  • Short storage duration
• Examples: litchi, oil palm
• Such species require alternative methods like cryopreservation or tissue culture.

III. Advanced Techniques

Cryopreservation

• Definition
  • Preservation of biological material at -196°C using liquid nitrogen.
• Material Preserved
  • Embryos
  • Gametes
  • Animal cells
  • Plant tissues
• Advantages
  • Indefinite storage
  • Maintains genetic stability
  • Useful for species with recalcitrant seeds
• Examples: cocoa, coconut, jackfruit

Tissue Culture

• Definition
  • In vitro growth of plant tissues under sterile conditions.
• Techniques
  • Callus culture
  • Embryoid formation
  • Shoot tip culture
  • Pollen grain culture
• Advantages
  • Rapid multiplication
  • Hybrid rescue
  • Maintains large genotypes in small space
• Examples: banana, potato

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

• Fertilization outside the body
• Used for endangered animals
• Supports population recovery

Gamete Preservation

• Storage of sperm and ova
• Maintains future breeding potential

In-situ vs Ex-situ (Quick Contrast)

• In-situ
  • Protection in natural habitat
  • Conserves ecosystem + species
• Ex-situ
  • Artificial/special settings
  • Conserves individual species + genes

Global Efforts for Biodiversity Conservation

1992 – Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• Location: Rio de Janeiro (Earth Summit)
  • Signed by 152 nations
  • Came into force on 29 December 1993
  • India joined in May 1994

• Major commitments:
  • Conserve biodiversity
  • Promote sustainable use
  • Ensure equitable sharing of genetic resource benefits

Produced Agenda 21 – blueprint for sustainable development.

2002 – World Summit on Sustainable Development

• Location: Johannesburg
  • 190 countries pledged to reduce biodiversity loss by 2010

2012 – Rio+20 Summit

• Held again in Rio de Janeiro
• Revised global sustainable development strategies

Important International Organisations

• International Union for Conservation of Nature – Global conservation leadership
• World Wide Fund for Nature – Wildlife conservation initiatives
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora – Controls trade of endangered species
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – Supports Biosphere Reserves under MAB Programme

Trade restrictions (e.g., ivory ban) have helped reduce elephant poaching.

Biodiversity Conservation in India

• India holds 8.1% of global biodiversity with only 2.4% of land area.
• Thus, conservation efforts are globally significant.

In-situ Measures

• Conducted by Ministry of Environment and Forests.
• Joint Forest Management (JFM)
  • Covers ~10.25 million hectares
  • 36,000+ village forest protection committees
  • Involves local and tribal communities
  • Protects non-wood forest products
• Tribal & Traditional Conservation
  • Conservation of land races
  • Preservation of medicinal plants
  • Community-based conservation practices

Ex-situ Measures in India

• Managed by:
  • National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
  • National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources
  • National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources

• ICRISAT – Hyderabad
  • International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
  • Conserves germplasm of:
    • Groundnut
    • Pigeon pea
    • Chickpea
    • Pearl millet
    • Sorghum

Numerous centres across India preserve present and historical crop varieties.

Chapter Summary

ORIGIN AND SCALE OF LIFE

• Life on Earth began approximately 3.8 billion years ago.
• Over millions of years, evolution generated enormous biological diversity.
• Currently:
  • More than 1.5 million species have been described.
  • Estimated total species ≈ 6–7 million (many undiscovered, especially in tropics).
• Taxonomic Distribution
  • >70% recorded species are animals.
  • Insects constitute >70% of animal species.
  • Fungi have more species than all vertebrates combined.

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

• Biodiversity exists at three hierarchical levels:
  1. Genetic Diversity: Variation within a species (genes, alleles, strains).
  2. Species Diversity: Variety and richness of species in a region.
  3. Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of ecosystems, habitats, and ecological processes.

INDIA’S BIODIVERSITY STATUS

• India has only 2.4% of the world’s land area.
• Supports about 8.1% of global species diversity.
• ~45,000 plant species recorded.
• ~90,000 animal species recorded.
• Classified among the 12 mega-diverse countries.

PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY

• Latitudinal Gradient
  • Species diversity:
    • Highest → Tropics
    • Decreases → Toward poles
  • Reasons for High Tropical Diversity:
    • Longer evolutionary time (no glaciation disturbances).
    • Stable and less seasonal climate.
    • Greater solar energy → higher primary productivity.

• Species–Area Relationship
  • Species richness increases with area.
  • Expressed as: log S = log C + Z log A
  • Larger regions show steeper slopes (higher Z value).

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

• Ecological Importance
  • Greater stability
  • Higher productivity
  • Resistance to invasive species
  • Better resilience to environmental stress

• Experimental Evidence
  • Communities with higher species richness:
    • Show less year-to-year variation in biomass.
    • Maintain ecosystem functioning more efficiently.

• Conceptual Model
  • Rivet Popper Hypothesis:
    • Each species contributes to ecosystem stability like rivets in an airplane.
    • Loss of key species can destabilize the entire system.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

• Current extinction rates:
  • 100–1000 times higher than pre-human background rates.
• Recent Data:
  • >700 species extinct in recent centuries.
  • >15,500 species currently threatened.
• Threatened Groups
  • 12% birds
  • 23% mammals
  • 32% amphibians
  • 31% gymnosperms
• If trends continue, nearly half of species may disappear within 100 years.

CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS (Evil Quartet)

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
   • Primary cause of extinctions.
   • Tropical rainforest cover reduced from 14% to ~6%.
2. Overexploitation
   • Unsustainable hunting, fishing, logging.
   • Examples: Passenger pigeon, Steller’s sea cow.
3. Alien Species Invasion
   • Introduced species outcompete natives.
   • Example: Nile perch in Lake Victoria.
4. Co-extinction
   • Loss of one species leads to extinction of dependent species.

WHY BIODIVERSITY IS CRUCIAL

1. Narrowly Utilitarian Value
   • Food
   • Fuel
   • Fibre
   • Medicines (25% modern drugs plant-derived)
   • Bioprospecting potential
2. Broadly Utilitarian (Ecosystem Services)
   • Oxygen production
   • Pollination
   • Climate regulation
   • Nutrient cycling
   • Soil formation
3. Ethical Value
   • Every species has intrinsic worth.
   • Moral responsibility to preserve biodiversity for future generations.

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

• Two Major Approaches:

1. In Situ Conservation

• Protection within natural habitats.
• Includes:
  • 34 global biodiversity hotspots
  • 3 hotspots covering India (Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats–Sri Lanka)
  • Biosphere reserves
  • National parks
  • Wildlife sanctuaries
  • Sacred groves

• India:
  • 14 Biosphere Reserves
  • 90 National Parks
  • 450+ Wildlife Sanctuaries

2. Ex Situ Conservation

• Protection outside natural habitats.
• Methods:
  • Zoological parks
  • Botanical gardens
  • Seed banks
  • Tissue culture
  • In vitro fertilization
  • Cryopreservation of gametes

CORE POINTS

• Biodiversity:
  • Result of billions of years of evolution.
  • Unevenly distributed (highest in tropics).
  • Essential for ecosystem stability and human survival.
  • Currently declining at alarming rates due to human activities.

Conservation is not optional — it is essential for sustaining life on Earth.